Perrault and Robinson Versions of Puss in Boots :: Compare Contrast Puss Boots Essays

Perrault and Robinson Versions of Puss in BootsPuss in Boots, like many folk and fairy tales is found in varying versions of the same floor. dickens of the many versions of this tale which are still told today are the classic version by Charles Perrault and whiz retold by Harry Robinson, an Okanagan Native Storyteller. Robinsons version was save and then transcribed and may be found in Write It On Your Heart - The Epic World of an Okanagan Storyteller. This paper will examine and compare the cloy of both these tales with regards to plot and attempt to explain why the differences and similarities occur with regards to characters and places. Though both versions share a common goal of assuring a goodness life for the son who inherits the cat, the reasons vary considerably from version to version. In Perraults tale, the son is destitute and the cat sets out to ensure his masters survival and comfort. Robinsons version, on the other hand, portraits a cat that seeks to right a wrong and return to his master that which was stolen from his family. A significant difference between the two tales is the number of events that take place.The openings to these two tales are very different from one another. In Perraults tale, the father is already dead and the children are about to split their meagre inheritance a mill, an ass and one cat. Robinson launches instead into an extended preamble identifying the story to be told along with some pertinent facts concerning its source. He identifies its source as being non- Native. This is white people stories. (Robinson, 282) distant Perraults poor miller, Robinsons father figure is identified as a well-to-do rancher with lots of cattle, several horses and many acres of cultivated fields. In fact, the farming public presentation is so large that there are many farmhands to tend to the various tasks (Robinson, 283). The father is very much alive and continues to be an integral part of the story for one third of the tale.Perra ults sequence of events is compact and straightforward. Once the sons have divided the assets, the two oldest siblings are removed from the tale. The cat requests some boots and a bag and sets take to provide for his master. Upon snagging each days catch, he presents it to the king as a gift from his master whom he dubs the Marquis of Carabas.

Influence of Realism on Literature :: Literature Realism

Influence of Realism on Literature After World War I, American people and the authors among them were left disillusioned by the effects that struggle had on their society. America needed a literature that would explain what had happened and what was happening to their society. American writers turned to what is now known as modernism. The influence of 19th vitamin C realism and naturalism and their truthful representation of American life and people was evident in post World War I modernism. This paper volition try to prove this by presenting the basic ideas and of these literary genres, literary examples of each, and then make connections between the two literary movements. Realism Modernism not only when depicted American society after World War I accurately and unbiasedly, but also tried to find the solutions brought upon by the suffering created by the war (Elliott 705). The realistic movement of the late 19th century saw authors accurately depict life and its problems. Realists attempted to give a spatiotemporal picture of modern life (Elliott 502) by presenting the entire picture. They did not try to give one view of life but instead attempted to institute the different classes, manners, and stratification of life in America. Realists created this picture of America by combining a wide variety of details derived from observation and documentation... to approach the average of experience... (3). Along with this technique, realists compared the objective or absolute existence in America to that of the universal truths, or observed facts of life (Harvey 12). In other words, realists objectively looked at American society and pointed out the aspects that it had in common with the general truths of existence. This realistic movement evolved as a result of many changes and transitions in American culture. In the late 1800s, the United States was experiencing swift growth and change as a result of a changing economy , society, and culture because of an influx in the number of immigrants into America. Realists much(prenominal) as Henry James and William Dean Howells, two of the most prolific writers of the Nineteenth-century, used typical realistic methods to create an accurate depiction of changing American life.

Economics Elasticity Essay -- Price Elasticity of Demand

Businesses know that they face demand curves, but rarely do they knowwhat these curves look like. Yet sometimes a business needs to slang agood idea of what part of a demand curve looks like if it is to makegood decisions. If Ricks Pizza raises its determines by ten percent, whatwill incur to its revenues? The answer depends on how consumers willrespond. Will they cut back purchases a little or a lot? This questionof how responsive consumers are to price changes involves the economicconcept of elasticity.Elasticity is a measure of responsiveness. Two words are importanthere. The word measure means that elasticity results are report as bites, or elasticity coefficients. The word responsiveness meansthat there is a stimulus-reaction involved. Some change or stimuluscauses people to react by changing their behavior, and elasticitymeasures the extent to which people react.The most common elasticity measurement is that of price elasticity ofdemand. It measures how much consumers respon d in their buyingdecisions to a change in price. The basic formula used to determineprice elasticity isIf price increases by 10%, and consumers respond by decreasingpurchases by 20%, the equation computes the elasticity coefficient as-2. The result is negative because an increase in price (a positivenumber) leads to a decrease in purchases (a negative number). Becausethe equity of demand says it will always be negative, many economistsignore the negative sign, as we will in the following discussion.An elasticity coefficient of 2 shows that consumers respond a greatdeal to a change in price. If, on the other hand, a 10% change inprice causes only a 5% change in sales, the elasticity coefficient... ...ticalsupply curve. For example, if on December 1 the price of orchard apple treesdoubles, there will be minimal effect on the number of applesavailable to the consumer. Producers lavnot make adjustments until anew growing season begins. In the short run, producers can use theirfacilit ies more or less intensively. In the apple example, they canvary the amounts of pesticides, and the amount of labor they use topick the apples. Finally, in the long run not only can producerschange their facilities, but they can leave the industry or newproducers may enter it. In our apple example, new orchards can beplanted or old ones destroyed. starting time ConsultedVitali Bourchtein The Principles of Economics Textbook An Analysis of Its Past, Present & Future May 2011 Web 15 May 2015.http//www.stern.nyu.edu/sites/default/files/assets/documents/con_042988.pdf

United Nations :: essays research papers

The get together Nations1.As far as peace keeping methods go, the reputation of the United Nations is very pitiable. This is not only because they have not been doing their job to its fullest extent, but also because the member states on the security council havent devoted the UN the force play it needs if it is to be a successful force in peace keeping methods.2.The United Nation idea was first brought to head during humans War II, when 26 nations of the world pledged to work together as one. The United Nations was officially operational as of the 24th of October 1951, with a minor 51 countries signing the UN charter. A stable base was set-up in New York.3.The UN structure is a very well thought-out one. The UN contains over 150 countries, with 5 main heads of state. These 5 countries are America, France, Great Britain, Russia and China. The 5 head countries always make the decision on whether to help a country that is in need or not. The base structure is that there is a gene ral assembly, which is the head of the UN. Off that there are 5 separately run systems, which are International court of justice, economical and social council, guarantor Council, secretariat and the trainee council. All have different, yet major roles in striving to make the UN a success.4.The Security Council is the council in charge of the peacekeeping operation side of the United Nations. The Security Council contained 15 countries in 1995. The countries were Argentina, Botswana, China, Czech Republic, France, Germany, Honduras, Indonesia, Italy, Nigeria, Oman, Russian Federation, Rwanda, UK and the U.S. China, France, UK, U.S and Russia are all permanent heads of the council. There are over 50 countries direct listed in the Security Council.5.The UN can be so ineffective because they do not have the power they would like to have. The United Nations have no power under the current charter to simply waltz into a countries disputes with out any permission being granted. Both c ountries must invite the UN in, but the Security Council must also agree with this as well. The countries involved in the Security Council must also provide the necessary manpower quickly. This takes time and hinders the UNs power.6.Somalia In 1992, after 23 months of Barres rain there was an estimated 300,000 people who died of starvation. A vanguard of UN peacekeeping forces was sent in to restore order.

Assessment of Mathematical Understanding Especially as it Relates to CMP :: Education Educational Papers

Assessment of Mathematical Understanding Especially as it Relates to CMPIntroduction Assessment has become a truly hot topic in education circles lately. Or at least, it is talked about more often and with more passion. Teachers are being judged on their students performance, based on sagaciousness scores. It is the assessment by which we are judged. The reauthorization of ESEA and the No Child Left Behind act shows the publics (or is it the politicians?) faith in standardized tests as a school improvement instrument. But I also know that the once-a-year test can not provide continuous teaching about student achievement. The traditional assessments of computation exercises, short answer questions, and word problems will not suffice any more. Typically, standardized tests measure factual knowledge, not conceptual understanding. I believe that conceptual understanding is not only what students know, but what they can do with what they know. Assessments are varied from teacher to teacher, district to district, and claim to state. I did an informal survey with some of my colleagues, asking them their reasons for assessing students, and the results varied greatly. I am interested in assessment and alternative assessments in order to process further my students understanding of mathematical concepts. I strongly believe that the purpose of assessment to inform my instruction, which in turn will further my students understanding. Background jibe to the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics Principles and Standards 2000 Assessment Principle, assessment should support the encyclopaedism of important mathematics and furnish useful information to both teachers and students. Assessment should be knowing to maximize student learning and support the learning of important mathematics and furnish useful information to both teachers and students.The National Education Association suggests that assessment is a continuous flow of evidence that can only be provided by classroom assessment. (NEA, 2003) Balanced assessments can actually promote student learning and achievement. To maximize student success, assessment must be seen as an instructional tool for use while learning is occurring, and as an accountability tool to ascertain if learning has occurred. (NEA, 2003)The 1995 NCTM Standards acknowledged that assessment should1.Reflect the mathematics that students show they know and what they are able to do.2.Enhance mathematics learning.3. kindle equity.4.Be an open process.5.Promote valid inference.6.Be a coherent process.The Assessment Model from NCTM (2000) includes four phases of the assessment process includes planning, gathering, interpreting, and using data. The table below shows how each phase influences the next.

Assessment of Mathematical Understanding Especially as it Relates to CMP :: Education Educational Papers

Assessment of Mathematical Understanding Especially as it Relates to CMPIntroduction Assessment has become a rattling hot topic in education circles lately. Or at least, it is talked about more often and with more passion. Teachers are being judged on their students performance, based on sagacity scores. It is the assessment by which we are judged. The reauthorization of ESEA and the No Child Left Behind act shows the publics (or is it the politicians?) faith in standardized tests as a school improvement instrument. But I also know that the once-a-year test can not provide continuous study about student achievement. The traditional assessments of computation exercises, short answer questions, and word problems will not suffice any more. Typically, standardized tests measure factual knowledge, not conceptual understanding. I believe that conceptual understanding is not only what students know, but what they can do with what they know. Assessments are varied from teacher to teac her, district to district, and commonwealth to state. I did an informal survey with some of my colleagues, asking them their reasons for assessing students, and the results varied greatly. I am interested in assessment and alternative assessments in order to booster further my students understanding of mathematical concepts. I strongly believe that the purpose of assessment to inform my instruction, which in turn will further my students understanding. Background fit to the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics Principles and Standards 2000 Assessment Principle, assessment should support the teaching of important mathematics and furnish useful information to both teachers and students. Assessment should be intentional to maximize student learning and support the learning of important mathematics and furnish useful information to both teachers and students.The National Education Association suggests that assessment is a continuous flow of evidence that can only be provided by classroom assessment. (NEA, 2003) Balanced assessments can actually promote student learning and achievement. To maximize student success, assessment must be seen as an instructional tool for use while learning is occurring, and as an accountability tool to find oneself if learning has occurred. (NEA, 2003)The 1995 NCTM Standards acknowledged that assessment should1.Reflect the mathematics that students show they know and what they are able to do.2.Enhance mathematics learning.3. invoke equity.4.Be an open process.5.Promote valid inference.6.Be a coherent process.The Assessment Model from NCTM (2000) includes four phases of the assessment process includes planning, gathering, interpreting, and using data. The table below shows how each phase influences the next.

A Clinical Assessment and Management of a Patient

A CLINICAL ASSESSMENT AND MANAGEMENT OF A PATIENT WITH FACULTATIVE HYPEROPIA Prepared By Santos, Clarence O. Abstract Ametropia is an anomaly of the refractive state of the eye in which, with relaxed accommodation, the image of objects at infinity is non formed on the retina. Thus resourcefulness may be blurred. The ametropias are astigmatism, farsightedness (hypermetropia) and myopia. The absence of ametropia is called emmetropia. The word ametropia can be used interchangeably with refractive error or image formation defects. Types of ametropia take on myopia, hyperopia and astigmatism. They are frequently categorized as spherical errors and cylindrical errors. Those who possess mild amounts of refractive error may elect to leave the gibe uncorrected, particularly if the patient is asymptomatic. For those who are symptomatic, glasses, contact lensees, refractive surgery, or a combination of the three are typically used. Keywords Hyperopia, Ametropia, Facultative Hyperopia Intr oductionHyperopia, also cognize as farsightedness, longsightedness or hypermetropia, is a defect of vision caused by an imperfection in the eye (often when the eyeball is too short-change or the lens cannot become round enough), causing difficulty condenseing on near objects, and in extreme cases causing a sufferer to be unable to focus on objects at any withdrawnness. As an object moves toward the eye, the eye must increase its optical power to keep the image in focus on the retina. If the power of the cornea and lens is insufficient, as in hyperopia, the image leave alone appear blurred.The causes of hyperopia are typically genetic and involve an eye that is too short or a cornea that is too flat, so that images focus at a point behind the retina. In severe cases of hyperopia from birth, the brain has difficulty unify the images that each individual eye sees. This is because the images the brain receives from each eye are always blurred. A child with severe hyperopia has nev er seen objects in period and might present with amblyopia or strabismus. If the brain never learns to see objects in detail, then there is a high chance that one eye will become dominant.The result is that the brain will block the impulses of the nondominant eye with resulting amblyopia or strabismus. Case Report Michelle Tizon, a 19 year old female had a routine eye checkup last July 23, 2012. She does not wear any corrective lenses. The patient does not report any symptoms of visual deficiencies and declares that she has clear vision at any distance. The patient claims that both of her parents are hypertensive, and likewise she is too. clinical Findings The patients vision is 20/20 monocular and binocularly for both distance and near, with an interpupillary distance of 60/58mm and a pupil diameter of 4mm.All the patients ocular adnexae are within general limits. Static retinoscopy reveals a gross finding of +2. 50 sph for both eyes and a net finding of +0. 50 sph. The findings e nable her to achieve 20/20 vision. Upon refinement during subjective refraction, her final prescription is of +0. 50 sph for the right eye and +0. 25 sph for the leave eye. The patients near point of convergence was metric at 8/13 which is within normal limits and with push-up amplitude finding of 12 cm or 8. 33 D. Corneal reflex testing showed a reflex located slightly nasally for the left eye and centered on the right eye.Upon further verification through alternate cover tests a slight amount of exophoria was revealed for both distance and near. social movement testing shows jerking in the patients smooth pursuit in all directions but smooth, accurate, full and extensive on saccades. Fundoscopic examination revealed that the infixed eye for both eyes of the patient are well within normal limits and absent of any pathology. Phorometric testing reveals a habitual phoria for the patient measured at 2 xop for distance and 1 xop for near, with the same values for the induced phoria .The amplitude of accommodation of the patient was at 7. 75D which is a determinant that the patient does not need any correction for near vision Diagnosis The patient has Facultative Hyperopia. Discussion Various eye care professionals, including ophthalmologists, optometrists and opticians, are involved in the treatment and management of hyperopia. At the conclusion of an eye examination, an eye doctor may provide the patient with an eyeglass prescription for corrective lenses. Minor amounts of hyperopia are sometimes left uncorrected.However, larger amounts may be corrected with convex lenses in eyeglasses or contact lenses. Convex lenses have a positive dioptric value, which causes the light to focus closer than its normal range. Management Full prescription should be given to the patient to aide her refractive error. References American Optometric Association. Optometric clinical Practice Guideline Care of the patient with hyperopia. 1997. Eye Health Presbyopia and Your Eyes. WebMD. com. October, 2005. Accessed September 21, 2006. Chou B. Refractive Error and Presbyopia. Refractive Source. com Accessed September 20, 2006. American Optometric Association. Optometric Clinical Practice Guideline Care of the patient with presbyopia. 1998. Kazuo Tsubota, Brian S. Boxer Wacher, Dimitri T. Azar, and Douglas D. Koch, editors, , Hyperopia and Presbyopia, unsanded York Marcel Decker, 2003 Roque, B. Refractive errors in children. November 2, 2005. Frequently Asked Questions How do you measure refractive errors? . The New York Eye And Ear Infirmary. Retrieved 2006-09-13.

Loblaws Hepatitis a Class Ction Essay

Index Introduction of the Loblaws Hepatitis A Class Action incident3 Introduction of Loblaws company3 explanation of class fulfill4 The reason of the incident5 Serious impacts and negative media coverage5 Alternatives6 a)Precautions before the issue arises6 b)Remedy after the issue occurred7 Recommendations7 Background of the Loblaws Hepatitis A Class Action incidentOn family line 3, 2002, a class action was launched in Toronto to against Loblaws alleging that customers and other persons may have been exposed to the Hepatitis A virus because of allegedly contaminated produce at Loblaws Humbercrest depot located at 3671 Dundas Street West in Toronto. This lawsuit relates to an employee of Loblaws infected with Hepatitis A. Although the identity of this employee was not disclosed, the fact was confirmed that this employee, who worked in the section of the store in which products were prepared, displayed and sold, has caused the infection to spread.Thousands of customers of Loblaws obtained an inoculation following the identification of the infected individual as an employee of Loblaws, working in the produce section of one of its stores. On June 15, 2006, the Settlement of this action was approved by the Superior Court. Loblaws would pay $150. 00 to each class member and all the cost of notification, administration, and distribution of the settlement fees. However, Loblaws supermarkets and loblaw companies didnt admit any erroneousness or liability on their part.

Discourse Analysis Mini Research Essay

This chapter presents an introduction consisting of background of study, problems of study, objective of the study, and significance of the study. 1.1 Background of the Study Language has a mixer function as a tool to make connection amidst human beings. Without verbiage, it seems impossible for great deal to interact with others in their daily life beca physical exertion speech can say peoples feeling, willing, opinion, etc. In case of communication, some public predicts might influence language aim in socio culture. The figure public not only as the entertainer for society but too as a trendsetter of any aspects much(prenominal) as the fashion style, hobby, and the language style.The later on aspect is the vexing star that we want to analyze in our miniskirt research. The influence of figure public language style toward society is could studied in Critical deal epitome (commonly abbreviated to CDA). Fairclough, the founder of CDA, explains that CDA is a theory of language in relation to power and ideology (19951).This is a theory change us to discover how a ruling class rules the society through their philology practices. Simply put, CDA is an interdisciplinary study combining linguistic theory and loving theories, much(prenominal) as politics, economics, religion, culture, communication, etc. in order to shed light on how the sociable and power domination atomic number 18 acted out in linguistic practice. We can found language style use by figure public in any kinds of media such as television, radio, internet, newspaper, and even in media complaisants. star of the phenomenal public figure is an Indonesian singer, Syahrini, who is known by her haggle. She maintains some famous delivery such as sesuatu, Alhamdulillah ya, cetar membahana, and the last one is terpampang nyata. Those five words ar famous among our society and everyone ofttimes use them in daily communication. How do Syahrinis words influence language use in socio cu ltural? Of course, at that place is a reason why does Syahrini have big impact to societys language usage. Based on theunique phenomena above, the researchers conduct the mini research entitled Meaning Construction in Syahrinis Utterances.1.2 Problem of The Study Based on the background above, the problem of the study is formulated as follow a. How do the words produced by Syahrini influence language use in amicable practice? 1.3 Objective of The StudyObjective of the study is a. To materialize out the influence of the words produced by Syahrini toward language use in tender practiceCHAPTER 2 REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE 2.1 Discourse Analysis According to Gillian Brown, hold forth synopsis is a term that has come to have different commentarys for scholars working in different plains. For a sociolinguist, it is concerned mainly with the structure of cordial interaction manifested in conversation for a psycholinguist, it is primarily concerned with the nature of comprehensi on of short written text editions for the computational linguist, it is concerned with producing operational models of text- get wording oceanic abyss down highly limited scenes.In this textbook, the authors provide an extensive overview of the many and diverse aerofoiles to the study of communication, but base their own approach centrally on the discipline which, to varying degrees, is common to them all linguistics. Using a methodology which has much in common with descriptive linguistics, they offer a lucid and wide-ranging bill of how forms of language ar used in communication.Their principal concern is to determine how any language produced by man, whether spoken or written, is used to communicate for a purpose in a context. The discussion is carefully illustrated throughout by a wide variety of discourse types (conversations recorded in different loving situations, extracts from newspapers, notices, contemporary fiction, graffiti, etc.). The techniques of analysis are described and exemplified in sufficient detail for the student to be able to apply them to any language in context that he or she encounters.A familiarity with elementary linguistics is assumed, but the range of issues discussed in conjunction with the variety of exemplification presented will make this a priceless and stimulating textbook not only for students of linguistics, but for any reader who wishes to investigate the principles inherent the use of language in inborn contexts to communicate and understand intended meaning.2.2 Critical Discourse Analysis Critical Discourse Analysis is based heavily upon Hallidays systemic working(a) linguistics (Fairclough, 1992, Fairclough 1999), and the critical linguisticsapproach which stemmed from the work led by Roger Fowler at the University of East Anglia in the 1970s (Fairclough 1992, Coffin 2001). Fairclough supported the ideas of critical linguistics, but felt that in many respects, they did not go far enough. Fowler claims t hat the effectiveness of critical linguistics lies in its capacity to equip readers for demystificatory readings of ideology-laden texts (Fowler, 1996 6). But Fairclough believed that this focuses excessively on the text as product, to the detriment of examining how these texts are produced, and how they may be interpreted. For Fairclough, it is equally vital that we understand the process of production of the text, as well as the process of interpretation of the text.CDA aims at making the connections transparent among discourse practices, social practices and social structures, connections that might be opaque to the layperson (Sheyholislami 2001). Luke (as cited in Taiwo 2007) describes that CDA is a method of DA that reveals vague ideas behind normal discussion. Language is no longer seen as merely reflecting outer reality. Fiske (1994) says that our words are never neutral they carry power that reflects interest of speakers. The objective of CDA is to uncover the ideologies or assumptions that are hidden behind the words of our written texts or oral speech.2.3 Faircloughs Framework for Analysis Discourses are forms of social practice. They are alike obviously texts (in the wider sense of the word). But Faircloughs framework adds a mediating third dimension which focuses on discourse as a specializedally discursive practice (Fairclough, 1992 71). Discursive practice is itself a form of social practice, and focuses on the processes of text production, distribution and consumption. diagrammatically as follows This is representedFairclough describes this framework as an attempt to bring together three analytical traditions, each of which is indispensable These analytical traditions are The tradition of close textual and linguistic analysis within linguistics. The macrosociological tradition of analyzing social practice in relation to social structures The interpretivist or microsociological tradition of seeing social practice as something which peopl e actively produce and make sense of on the basis of shared commonsenseprocedures. for discourse analysis.2.4 Theory of Ideology The theory of ideology that informs the discourse analytic approach of this paper is multidisciplinary. It is articulated within a abstract triangle that connects society, discourse and social cognition in the framework of a critical discourse analysis (van Dijk, 1993b). In this approach, ideologies are the basic frameworks for organizing the social cognitions shared by members of social chemical assemblys, organizations or institutions. In this respect, ideologies are both cognitive and social. They essentially function as the interface amongst the cognitiverepresentations and processes underlying discourse and action, on the one hand, and the societal position and interests of social groups, on the other hand. Thisconception of ideology too allows us to establish the crucial link between macrolevel analyses of groups, social formations and social st ructure, and microlevel studies of situated, individual interaction and discourse. Social cognition is, here, narrowd as the system of cordial representations and processes of group members (for details, see, e.g., Fiske and Taylor, 1991 Resnick, Levine and Teasley, 1991). Part of the system is the sociocultural knowledge shared by the members of a specific group, society or culture. Members of groups may also share evaluative beliefs, viz., opinions, organized into social attitudes.Thus, feminists may share attitudes about abortion, affirmative action or corporate glass ceilings blocking promotion, or other forms of discrimination by men. Ideologies, then, are the overall, abstract mental systems that organize such socially shared attitudes. The feminist attitudes just mentioned, for instance, may be internally structured and mutually connect by general principles or propositions that together define a feminist ideology. Similar examples may be given for racialist, anti-racist, corporate or ecological attitudes and their underlying ideological systems.Through complex and usually long-term processes of socialization and other forms of social information processing , ideologies are gradually acquired by members of a group or culture. As systems of principles that organize social cognitions, ideologies are assumed tocontrol, through the minds of the members, the social reproduction of the group.Ideologies mentally represent the basic social characteristics of a group, such as their identicalness, tasks, goals, norms, values, position and resources. Since ideologies are usually self-serving, it would seem that they are organized by these group-schemata. White racists, for example, represent society basically in ground of a conflict between whites and non-whites, in which the identity, goals, values, positions and resources of whites are seen to be threatened by theothers. They do so by representing the traffic between themselves and the Others essentially in terms of us versus them, in which we are associated with positive properties and they are associated with bad properties. Such ideologies of groups and group relations are constructed by a groupbased selection of relevant social values. Feminists, on the one hand, select andattach excess importance to such values as independence, autonomy and equality. Racists, on the other hand, focus on self-identity, transcendency of the own group, and hence on contrariety, while at the comparable time advocating the primacy of their own group and the privilege of selectential access to valued social resources. The content and schematic organization of group ideologies in the social mind shared by its members are a function of the properties of the group within the societal structure.The identity family line of a group ideology organizes the information as well as the social and institutional actions that define membership who belongs to the group, and who does not who is admitted and who is not. For groups who share a racist ideology, this may mean, among other things, resentment, actions and policies once against immigration and integration in our culture, country, city, neighborhood, family or company. Similarly, the goal category of groups who share a racist ideology organizes the information and actions that define the overall aims of the group, e.g., to keep our country white. The position category foreigners ,defines the relations of the group with reference groups, such as, immigrants , refugeesor cuttings . In sum, the social functions of ideologies are,among others, to allow members of a group to organize (admission to) their group, coordinate their social actions and goals, to protect their (privileged) resources, or, conversely, to gain access to such resources in the case of dissident or oppositional groups. As basic forms of social cognitions, however, ideologies also have cognitive functions. We have already suggested that they organize, monitor and control specific group attitudes. Possibly, ideologies also control the development, structure and application of sociocultural knowledge. To wit, feminists have special interest in acquiring and using knowledge about the dominance of women by men.Generally though, we shall assume that ideologies more specifically control evaluative beliefs, that is, social opinions shared by the members of a group. At this mental interface of the social and the individual, however, ideologies and the attitudes and knowledge they control, also indirectly influence the individualised cognitions of group members, e.g., the planning and pinch oftheir discourses and other forms of (inter)action.These personal mental representations of peoples experiences of such social practices are called models (Johnson-Laird, 1983 van Dijk, 1987b van Dijk and Kintsch, 1983). Models are mental representations of events, actions, or situations people are engaged in, or which they read about. The set of these mo dels represents the beliefs (knowledge and opinions) people have about their everyday lives and defines what we usually call peoples experiences.These models are unique and personal and controlled by the biographical experiences of social actors. On the other hand, they are also socially controlled, that is, influenced by the general social cognitions members share with other members of their group.This combined figurehead of personal and (instantiated, particularized, applied) social information in mental models allows us not only to explain the well-known missing link between the individual and the social, between the micro and the macro analysis of society, but also to make explicit the relations between general group ideologies and actual text and talk.That is, models control how people act, speak or write, or how they understand the social practices of others. We, thus, have thefollowing, highly simplified elements in the relations between ideologies and discourse at various l evels of analysis. In other words, ideologies are localized between societal structures and the structures of the minds of social members. They allow social actors to translate their social properties (identity, goal, position, etc.) into the knowledge and beliefs that make up the concrete models of their everyday life experiences, that is, the mental representations of their actions and discourse.Indirectly (viz., through attitudes and knowledge), therefore, ideologies control how people plan and understand their social practices, and hence also the structures of text and talk. Ideologies define and explain the similarities of the social practices of social members, but our theoretical framework at the same time accounts for individual variation. Each social actor is a member of many social groups, each with their own, sometimes conflicting ideologies.At the same time, each social actor has her/his own, sometimes unique, biographical experiences ( old models ), attitudes, ideologie s and values, and these will also interfere in the construction of models,which, in turn, will influence the production (and the comprehension) of discourse. Hence, the schema given above may be read top down, or bottom up.The relations involved are dynamic and dialectic ideologies partly control what people do and say (via attitudes and models), but concrete social practices or discourses are themselves take to acquire social knowledge, attitudes and ideologies in the first place, viz., via the models people construct of others social practices (including others discourses) (van Dijk, 1990). At many points, our theoretical approach to ideology is at variance with classical and other contemporary approaches to ideology (see Eagleton,1991 Larrain, 1979 Thompson, 1984, 1990).Ideologies in our berth are not merely systems of ideas, let alone properties of the individual minds of persons. Neither are they vaguely defined as forms of consciousness, let alone as false consciousness. Ra ther, they are very specific basic frameworks of social cognition, with specific internal structures, and specific cognitive and social functions. As such, they (also) need to be analyzed in terms of explicit social psychological theories (see also Rosenberg, 1988), which obviously has nothing to do with mentalist reductionism.At the same time they are social, for they areessentially shared by groups and acquired, used, and changed by people as group members in social situations and institutions, often in situations of conflicting interests between social formations (Eagleton, 1991). However, ideologies are not restricted to dominant groups. Oppositional or dominated groups also share ideologies. The main problem of roughly critical approaches to ideology is that they are exclusively inspired by social sciences and rather confused philosophical approaches. They ignore detailed and explicit cognitive analysis, and so they are unable to explicitly link social structures with social p ractices and discourses of individuals as social members.Ideologies or other social cognitions in our approach are not reduced to or uniquely defined in terms of the social practices they control (Coulter, 1989), nor to the discourses that express, convey or help reproduce them (Billig et al., 1988 Billig, 1991), or to the institutions in which they are reproduced. (For different but related approaches, see, e.g., Fairclough, 1989, 1992a Kress and Hodge, 1993.)Discourse analysis as ideological analysis The sketch of the theory of ideology presented above provides us with a conceptual framework that also allows us to engage in ideological analyses , and, hence, a critique of discursive practices. After all, we have seen that ideologies, though variably and indirectly, may be expressed in text and talk, and that discourses besides function to persuasively help construct new and confirm already present ideologies. In both cases, this core that there may be discourse structures that a re particularly relevant for an efficient expression or persuasivecommunication of ideological meanings.For instance, headlines in newspapers,, taken as prominent expressions of the overall meaning or gist (semantic macrostructure) of a news report in the press, form a special discourse category that is probably more likely to express or convey ideological content than, for instance, the number of commas in a text. On the other hand, we have no a priori theoretical grounds to exclude any textual structures from expressing underlying ideological principles.Indeed, virtually all discourse structures are involved in the functional expression of mental models of events or communicative contexts, and,therefore, of the opinions that are part of such mental models. To wit, a racist opinion of a speaker about his black interlocutor, may be subtly expressed (involuntarily or not) by minimal modulation variations, interpreted by the black interlocutor as a racist way of addressing her, whil e sounding unwarrantably insolent or impolite (for many such examples of everyday racism, see Essed, 1991). Let us now examine these levels and properties of discourse and the ways ideologies may be expressed and conveyed more systematically.However, before we present a summary of preferential discoursestructures for the expression and communication of ideological meanings, we should be clearly aware of what we are looking for. Given the theory of ideology presented above, we need to attend primarily to those properties of discourse that express or signal the opinions, perspective, position, interests or other properties of groups.This is specifically the case when there is a conflict of interest, that is, when events may be seen, interpreted or evaluated in different, possibly opposed ways. The structures of ideologies also suggest that such representations are often articulated along an us versus them dimension, in which speakers of one group will generally tend to present themse lves or their own group in positive terms, and other groups in negative terms.Thus, any property of discourse that expresses, establishes, confirms or emphasizes a self- interested group opinion, perspective or position, especially in a broader socio-political context of social struggle, is a candidate for special attention in such an ideological analysis. Such discourse structures usually have the social function of legitimating dominance or justifying concrete actions of power abuse by the elites.Surface structures The come out of the closet structures of discourse refer to the variable forms of expression at the level of phonological and graphical realization of underlying syntactic,semantic, pragmatic or other abstract discourse structures. With a few exceptions, such surface structures of text and talk do not have explicitmeanings of their own. They are only the conventional manifestations of underlying meanings.Yet, such surface structures may express and convey special oper ations or strategies. For instance, special stress or volume or large printed type may strategically be used to emphasize or attract attention to specific meanings, as is the case when shouting at people or in screaming newspaper headlines. In the same way, special into national contours may help express irony, (lack of) politeness or other semantic or interactional meanings and functions. These examples already suggest that surface structures may express or control the ways in which events are interpreted by speech participants.A large banner headline may emphasize the biased summary of a news event, about a race riot, for instance, and insulting volume or intonation may similarly inequality between speaker and signal socialhearer. Theoretically, this means that communicative contexts mayideologically controlled models of events or ofrepresent women or minorities in a negative way, and such opinions will not only influence the meanings of the text but also, indirectly, the sometime s subtle variations of the graphical or phonological surface structures. Indeed, whereas the meanings of the text may not explicitly express or encode prejudice or social inequality, surface structures may let anyway.In general this means that such surface structures must be marked. They must be out of the ordinary and violate communicative rules or principles, i.e., those of normal size headlines, normal volume or intonation in polite transpire such hidden meaningsspeech, and so on. Depending on meaning and context, then, such deviant surface structures may signal, express, or convey similarly deviant propertiesof models, such as a specially negative opinion about the competence of a woman or a black man.In other words, ideological surface structures primarily function as signals of special meanings or model structures, andmay, thus, also contribute to special processing of such interpretations of text and talk. Special graphical or phonological emphasis may also manage the importa nce of information or beliefs, and, hence, the hierarchical organization of models in which grievous information is located at the top.Conversely, meanings and beliefs may be de-emphasized or concealed by non-prominent graphical or phonological structures when they express meanings that are inconsistent with the goals or interests of the speaker. Intonation, such as the tone of racist insults, may also conventionally signal specific social relations, and hence also ideologically based inequality.That is, they also influence the context models of the communicative context. The same is true for other forms of non-verbal communication, such as gestures, facial expression, proximity, and so on, which also may signal interpersonal and social relations, and, therefore, ideological meanings. Finally, it is well known that accented speech of sociolects or dialects express or convey social class, ethnicity, gender, or social relations of familiarity or intimacy, as has been shown in much so ciolinguistic and social psychological research (Giles and Coupland, 1991 Montgomery, 1986).Again, it is obviousthat such social relations may also be structured in conflict and inequality, and so presuppose ideological differences. Accents may thus signal or express prestige, accommodation, dominance, resistance or other ideologically controlled social relations.CHAPTER triad RESEARCH METHODS There are four aspect that are discussed in the chapter of research method. That are (1) type of research, (2) selective information and data sources, (3) data collection methods, and (4) data analysis 3.1 Type of research In this research, the writer uses qualitative research. According to Creswell (1997, p.15) Qualitative research is an inquiry process of understanding based on hard-hitting methodological traditions of inquiry that explore a social or human problem. The researcher builds a complex, holistic picture, analyzes words, reports detailed views of informants, and conducts the st udy in a natural setting.The researcher analyzed CDA in the words produced by Syahrini. Therefore, later the researchers described the result of their analysis which tried to find out the influence of the wordsproduced by Syahrini toward language use in social culture. 3.2 Data and Data Sources The data sources were taken from the words produced by Syahrini. She is an Indonesian singer who is known by her words such as sesuatu, Alhamdulillah ya, cetar membahana, jambul khatulistiwa, and terpampang nyata. Those words are produced by Syahrini herself and they have a significant influence language use because many people use them in daily communication3.3 Data Collection Methods There are three steps in collecting data, those are 1. The writers searched the words produced by Syahrini from the internet. 2. Listing the words produced by Syahrini3.4 Data Analysis In analyzing the data, the writer used some steps as follows 1. Identifying and analyzing the words produced by Syahrini using Faircloughs dimension of discourse 2. Drawing conclusionCHAPTER IV FINDING AND CONCLUSION 4.1 Finding Ideologies Syahrini as one of the popular artist I Indonesia has her own characteristics of ideal beautiful person, provided women. Unconsciously, she creates her own version of the ideal women characters. She prefers to see the ideal women based on their physical appearances. She phanatically sees the beautiful women are they who have good physical appearances, such as slim body, white skin, straight nose, bulu mata lentik, and having jambul. It can be proved with the utterances regularly used by her like Cettar Membahana, Jambul Katulistiwa. It can be concluded that he prefer to see the author beauty rather than the inner beauty of women.The following supports the above explanation. Here are the utterances regularly used by Syahrini, 1. Sesuatu 2. Cetar Membahana 3. Jambul Khatulistiwa 4. Bulu Mata Anti Badai schoolbook Analysis Those utterances are merely concerned with the d iction choice and structure formation. As we know, those utterances spelled by Syahrini who is one of famous artist or singer in Indonesia. She prefer to say (datum 1) in expressing her feeling toward something.The expression of (1) represents her regret or interest expression like mempesona, meriah, gokil. For example Trans TV sesuatu banget ya or Ayushanti memang sesuatu. Instead of axiom Trans TV gokil banget she prefers to say Trans TV sesuatu banget.In Bahasa Indonesia sesuatu has the equal meaning assomething. The diction something or sesuatu usually has the position as noun, but here Syahrini use this diction as adjective. On the other hand, Syharini usually say Cettar Membahana. Cettar membahana has the equal meaning as Luar Biasa or Amazing. Instead of adage luar biasa, she prefers to say cettar membahana. Cettar in Bahasa Indonesia followed the theory of onomatopoeia which defines as language formation influenced by the sound of something. Cettar expresses the sound of f ireworks when it burnt-out.So cettar menas something burnt, eye-catching, interesting, or extraordinary. Besides that, she also adds the diction membahana after the word cetar. Membahana has almost the same meaning with cetar, but membahana here as adverb and better as adjectives. Form those explanation above cetar membahana means kill the expression of something amazed, great. In fact there is the expression like luar biasa or meankjubkan in Indonesia there Syahrini used the exaggeration expression in expressing something.Next, Syahrini also used the expression Bulu Mata Anti Badai instead of saying bulu mata lentik. She prefers to say bulu mata badai perhaps it caused many disasters happened in Indonesia lately, so that she exaggerate her utterance using one of the name of those disaster. Actually there is nit the regular expression between bulu mata and anti badai, but she just combining the utterances with other utterances so it will create new strange language, or perhaps it ca n call sway language.Discourse Practice Those utterance used by Syahrini above clearly in order to attract her popularity as one of Indonesian singer. She seems has plan to use those utterances rather than the other utterances proved above in order to be extraordinary in expression something. By those utterances above, she wants to get more attention by her fans, or moreover the Indonesian people. The utterances like sesuatu, cetar membahana, and badai expressed something exaggerated. Here, Syahrini plans to use them regularly in many times. It seems likeshe always update her new expression again and again when she wasinterviewed by the infotainment journal. Nowadays, who doesnt know Syahrini? Almost all Indonesian people know her, with her controversy utterances also.Sociocultural Practice Syahrini as one of the popular artist in Indonesia needs to attract her popularity. Thats why she does it by using the controversy utterances or language in expressing something. Before, it had been existed the utterances sesuatu, cetar membahana, and sesuatu in Indonesian. Today, the changes of language formation can be created freely in order to get some intentions. The change in discourse practiced by Syahrini influence the sociocultural of Indonesia and Indonesian people. By the utterances used by Syahrini that have been illustrated above, the people imitate that expression from children until adult use that utterances.CONCLUSION From those explanations above, it should be underlined that her utterances above imply the deep meaning beside it. One of the reasons is that she say the exaggeration expression in order to get more intentions from her fans. Moreover, she also wants to get extra intention from Indonesian people.NO 1 2 3 4Utterances Sesuatu Cetar Membahana Bulu mata anti badai Jambul KhatulistiwaMeaning Luar biasa More than sesuatu Bulu mata lentik Jambul KerenREFERENCES Choyimah, Nurul. 2013. CDA handout. Unpublished Paul Gee, James. 2011. An introduction to d iscourse analysis theory and method. New York RoutledgeFairclough N., 1992. Discourse and Social Change. Polity Press Cambridge. Fairclough N., 2000. Discourse, social theoryand social research the discourse of welfare reform. Journal of Sociolinguistics4, pp. 163-195 Kata Syahrini. Online. Available http//www.dusunblog.com/2012/11/kata-syahrini-cucok-mokorocodot.htmlAccessed from the Internet on May 22, 2012 Syahrini Manfaatkan buzzword Unuk Popularitas. Online. Available http//www.cumicumi.com/posts/2011/09/24/23004/26/syahrini-manfaatkanjargon-untuk-popularitas.html

Love and Its Tribulations Essay

Love is one of the most sought after things in the world. Love can non be bought, it can only be found by the lucky few and those who are able to unc everywhere it never want to let it go. In Jane Eyre, our heroine meets Mr. Rochester, who is a possible love interest, when she takes up position as a governess at his estate. There are many things that could hinder their quest for love, like the presence of doubt and suspicion. Other factors that could deter a healthy relationship are their different levels of experience, and their dissimilar personalities.The reason why some relationships do not last long is because of jealousy and distrust. In this sideslip Janes rival is Blanche Ingram. It is true that Jane is not envious of Blanches mind, but she resents Blanches ability to gain the complete attention of Mr. Rochester. It is already evident what Janes reaction will be when other, more desirable women, are in Rochesters presence. Neither of them has publicized their faces for each other yet they cannot bear the disposition of the other with somebody else. Rochester emits his jealousy as well, when Jane receives newborns of Mrs. Reeds illness. He does not agree with her decision to leave Thornfield, because he is afraid that she whitethorn not return. He is resentful of Janes relatives for the reason that he knows that his bond with her could not compare to her family ties. He cannot compete with that kind of familial connection. He only has money to give, and money cannot buy the time Jane spent with her relatives, no matter how badly she was treated.A factor that could complicate a new romance developing is Janes lack of experience with men and Rochesters willingness to take advantage of it. The men she has come across thus far eat treated her with cruelty and disdain. For example her cousin John Reed bullied and tortured her from morning until night when she was only a little girl. Jane was never presented with much partiality or care by her benefactre ss, Mrs. Reed. So when she meets Mr. Rochester, she finds herself confused as to what her feelings are towards him. She has never experienced romantic love before, so she does not know if what she is feeling is love or just fondness.And if she does sort out her feelings she would not know how to communicate her emotions to Mr. Rochester. As well, Mr. Rochester is a manipulative man he enjoys having force pretend over those around him. This is shown where he misleads Jane into believing that he will marry Blanche Ingram, when his true intent was to marry her. As if he didnt have enough power over her already, being her employer, provider of her home, and her only source of income. His demanding nature and her poor judgement could be detrimental to the progress of forming a serious relationship.Jane is a stiff-necked being, and this character trait could lead to discrepancies in her associations with Mr. Rochester. Jane is very much aware of her position at Thornfield manor as the g overness. She is completely dependent on Mr. Rochester and she does not like it. This is demonstrated when Jane must leave Thornfield to visit her Aunt, and needs money to fund her journey. Mr. Rochester willingly overpays Jane, but her obstinate nature refuses to take more than she earned. possibly the reason for Janes cautious-like behaviour can be accounted for by her dismal childhood, which hardened her. She became accustomed to working for everything she received. Mr. Rochesters abundant wealth and generosity, does not sustain the situation either. For instance if Mr. Rochester offered Jane gifts, she would not accept them and could even feel insulted by the gesture. Also Mr. Rochester would be offended by her decline, therefore both parties would walk outside(a) feeling disheveled by each others actions. Their contrasting qualities could inhibit their ability to obtain a functional relationship.These problems will last out to play a role in the downfall of their relationshi p. Mr. Rochester and Jane have many barriers in their way such as trust issues, differences in experience, and their distinctive personalities. These problems will continue damaging their relationships, unless Jane is able to gain independence from Rochester and they are both willing to compromise for the sake of the other.

Prison Rape Victims

free radical meeting the Needs of Prison despoil Victims A Technical Assistance Guide for Sexual Assault Counselors and Advocates PENNSYLVANIA COALITION AGAINST RAPE The billing of PCAR is to eye socket to eliminate all forms of internal violence and to advocate for the chastises and demand of victims of intimate violence. At PCARs core is the statewide network of sexual violence centers that work in concert with PCAR to administer quality function to survivors and their signifi undersidet differents.PCAR centers provide 24-hour operates, s charge days a week, including free and confidential crisis intervention mortal and tolerate meeting counseling hospital, court, and police accompaniment pr stilltion education inwardly schools and the community and pronounceation and referrals. In addition to providing technical assistance in a variety of argonas, the role of PCAR is to oversee the sexual violence centers contracts monitor relevant legislation and human beings po licy issues provide library re sources and educational learns and create public aw beness/prevention campaigns for statewide implementation.ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS PCAR wishes to thank Rachel Shupp, BSW, Shippensburg University, class of 2006, for her work on this make. As part of her senior-year internship at PCAR, Rachel researched the issue of prison house house house desecrate extensively, visiting various(a) prisons through and throughout Pennsylvania and responding to letters from victims of prison mar. These experiences and Rachels compassion for victims back uped inform this publication.Copyright 2006 The core of this publication whitethorn be reprinted with the following ac familiarityment This material was reprinted from the Pennsylvania coalition Against indulges publication entitled, Meeting the Needs of Prison Rape Victims A Technical Assistance Guide for Sexual Assault Counselors and Advocates. This guide is available on our website pcar. org Meeting the Needs of Prison Rape Victims A Technical Assistance Guide for Sexual Assault Counselors and Advocates TABLE OF CONTENTSIntroduction The Prison Rape Elimination Act Inmates as Victims Ethical Dilemmas Working with a Victim who is also an Offender Prison Entry The Basics Collaborating with Correction Staff Inmate Support Groups State train Responses in Pennsylvania Conclusion 2 3 3 5 8 10 14 18 19 INTRODUCTION P rison misdemeanour has gone largely un loted by social renovation platforms punitory institutions and until recently, lawmakers in this country. When prison rape is mentioned in the media or general public, it is lots in the form of a joke or jest. Nothing about rape is funny, regardless of where or to whom it betides.Victims of prison rape be at eminent seek of becoming victims again, largely because they whitethorn be too fearful to reach out for help or when they do, they find function specific to their withdraws argon unavailable. They often fear experiencing further trauma and shame if they come forward. If they do choose to tell someone, their cries be sometimes ignored or disregarded. When victims of prison rape be released-as the majority of inmates arand rejoin our communities, they often suffer a complex interplay of biopsychosocial effects from their victimization. There is a severe privation of research surrounding the relative frequency of prison rape.It was approximated that inside correctional facilities in the midwestern region of the country, one in five males experience a pressured or forced sexual incident, and rough one in 10 males report completed rape (Stop Prisoner Rape, 2006). According to the same study, rates of female sexual appal in prisons in that same region are estimated to range from six percent to 27 percent. Due to under inform, it is likely that these figures do non capture the full s portion out of sexual assault in correctional facilities. The incidence of prison rape also varies between institutions, th us increasing he challengingy of acquiring accurate and nationwide representative statistical figures. The collection of accurate prison rape data is impeded by limited definitions of sexual assault and flawed reporting and receipt protocol in operation at bottom m any correctional institutions throughout our nation. 2 THE PRISON RAPE ELIMINATION ACT (PREA) The problem of prison rape, its underreporting, and lack of appropriate receptions to victims were catalysts for the passage of the Prison Rape Elimination Act (PREA). Passed in 2003, PREA specifically addresses the issue of rape in correctional institutions and facilities throughout the nation.The main aspiration of the law is to reserve the reduction, elimination, and prevention of rape within correctional facilities at the federal, state, and local levels. PREA also mandates national data collection efforts, provides funding for program phylogeny and research, and endorses a national commission to develop standards and accountability measures. Anti-sexual violence coalitions, local rape crisis centers, and correctional institutions are currently collaborating across the country in response to PREA and the require of prison rape victims.For more information on such collaborations, see RESHAPE, a Newsletter on the Prison Rape Elimination Act, comeback 18, the National Sexual Assault Coalition Resource Sharing Project, available at http//www. resourcesharingproject. org/ newsletters. html. The main goal of PREA is to support the reduction, elimination, and prevention of rape within correctional facilities at the federal, state, and local levels. INMATES AS VICTIMS Many people carry strongly-held beliefs about prisoners that are not easy to s trend.Some see the inmate world as vile of services and that prison rape is a form of poetic justice, or part of the punishment for their delinquent behavior. Prison rape seems to be an accepted norm and almost expected in the prison surroundings and the refore difficult to address and prevent. Many people blame rape victims for their victimization. Public blame is often magnified when the victim happens to be incarcerated. It is difficult for many people to empathize with criminals and to see them as victims. 3 Try to imagine you are living within the walls of a prison.You can almost touch two walls of your cell when you open your arms as wide as they can go. When you close your eyes, you can lighten see the graffiti that adorns your walls-desperate pleas of the inmates that came before you. The bars on the window allow whole a sliver of sunlight into your cell. You arrive at little or no touch with anyone on the outside and no one you can trust on the inside. You committed a nonviolent crime that you deeply regret. You live in fear everyday of being beaten or raped. The trauma of a rape can be in particular devastating to someone who already feels marooned and without power or choices.Because of the social stigma and sham e attached to the issue, it is difficult to tell even a close friend or family member that you fool been a victim of rape. Imagine having to tell your story to a perfect stranger who is likely unprepared for or unsympathetic about such a disclosure. If correctional officers and staff are unresponsive, the victims mental health status can quickly deteriorate. This can lead to long-term problems that manifest themselves upon this persons release. Rape not unaccompanied poses a threat to the mental wellbeing of an individual, but also to the physical health of that person.For example, HIV and AIDS are a serious threat to the prison universe of discourse with higher rates of infection than in the general population (Mariner, 2001). 4 ETHICAL DILEMMAS WORKING WITH A VICTIM WHO IS ALSO AN OFFENDER Advocates call for many skills to their work with victims-professionalism, compassion, empathy, and resourcefulness are just a sampling. Advocates also develop their personal experiences, values, morals, and beliefs to the work, which can strengthen and sometimes hinder services depending on the situation. On one hand, rape crisis advocates and counselors may feel ethically obligated to erve victims of prison rape as well as other traditionally underserved victims such as people of color males children elderly people with disabilities people living in poverty immigrants, refugees, and victims of sex trafficking lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgendered individuals and others. On the other hand, rape crisis advocates and counselors may make out with the idea of helping someone who has potentially hurt another person or has even sexually abused or assaulted someone. It can be a wonderful experience to expand horizons and travel beyond ones comfort zone.At the same time, it can also be upsetting to enter into unfamiliar territory or work. Think about what is possible. Prepare. Listen to ones inner voice and instincts and ac association ethical obligations and limitati ons. Basic Human Rights All humans are entitled to rights, including incarcerated individuals. One canonical right that many victims of prison rape do not enjoy is that of safety-whether physical, mental, or spiritual. The rape crisis movement has been dedicated to exposing antithetical types of sexual assault, empowering victims to speak out, and providing services to victims in need.As we know well, anyone can be a rape victim. There is no way for discrimination in our quest to help survivors of rape. All victims who reach out should be provided with help for past or present sexual assault. Ethical Decision-Making The offender-victim dichotomy is complex. There is no single answer on how to belabor this ethical dilemma but rather, a process of selfreflection that may produce several options. Before meeting with a victim of prison rape, advocates and counselors should reflect on their personal values, morals, beliefs and biases as well as the mission and policies of their parent procedure/organization.Supervision may provide a safe and supportive environment in which this self-reflection and 5 analysis can occur. Discussing the ethical challenges with a trusted colleague can also be helpful. It is important to explore ones preconceived notions and ideas about the prison population and their sources. Advocates may find the following resource helpful in their ethical decision-making process Ethics in Victim Services, by Melissa Hook (available from the Sidran Institute, sidran. org). infra are some questions that ability help guide advocates in the process of ethical decision-making 1.What are the needs of victims of prison rape? 2. What are their resources? 3. What is kn take in or believed about the prison population? 4. What is unknown? 5. What is laughingstock ones knowledge or feelings about the prison population? 6. What fears and hopes are at play? 7. What past experiences inform present-day feelings, beliefs, fears, and motivations? 8. What are w ays to overcome personal and professional barriers in working(a) with the prison population? 9. What opportunities exist to develop and strengthen knowledge, skills, and knowingness? 10. What are the ethical principles at play? 1. Which ethical principles are in conflict? 12. Which ethical principle should take priority and why? 13. Are there indisputable individuals with whom an advocate cannot and should not work because it would be unethical (due to the negative impact the advocates personal biases, beliefs, and limitations would have on such individuals)? 14. If an advocate cannot meet the needs of a victim due to the above, who else in the agency/organization can assist the victim? 15. What is the agency/organizations mission? 16. What is the role of the advocate or counselor within that mission? 6 17.How do the needs of the prison population fit into that mission? 18. How can the agency/organization meet the needs of the prison population? Working with a Victim who is also a Sexual Assault Offender The ethical discussion gets more complicated when the victim is not only an offender, but also a sexual offender. It may be easier for advocates to work with victims who are incarcerated for nonviolent crime or crimes not of a sexual nature. It may be more difficult to work with a victim who has sexually assaulted or raped someone. In these cases, it is important to remember the parameters of the advocates role.In a direct service capacity, the focus of advocacy is on victimization, not on perpetration. The rape crisis advocates role in the counseling capacity, is to help victims process their trauma and heal from victimization, not to address offender issues. It is critical that advocates clarify their role and purpose with the client from the beginning. If offender issues arise, which they may, advocates should be prepared to refocus attention back to the victim experience. It may be necessary to refer the client to another service provider for offender tr eatment. reenforcement referral information handy for this purpose.As always, advocates should consult with their supervisors and agency policies as to whether providing services to victims who are also sexual offenders is even possible. Funding Considerations Advocates may question whether they are able to provide services under provisions of the agency or source that funds their practice. For example, advocates can not use Victims of Crime Act (VOCA) funding to offer rehabilitation services to offenders or to support services to incarcerated individuals, even when the service pertains to the victimization of that individual (US surgical incision of Justice, p. 4, 1999). Agencies may find that they can use alternative funding streams to provide services to the prison population, such as section of Public Welfare and other monies. Consulting with supervisors and agency policies and mission statements allow for help advocates determine whether limitations exist for the provision o f services to the prison population. 7 PRISON door THE BASICS Entering an unfamiliar territory can be intimidating, especially when it is surrounded by barbed wire and locked gates. The prison environment is very different from other settings where services are provided to victims.Providing services in prisons requires special consideration and planning. It may be difficult to navigate a prison without prior knowledge or experience. Each correctional institution has a complex set of rules and regulations, but there are some basic things to keep in instinct when planning services. A Handbook for the Families and Friends of Pennsylvania Department of Corrections Prison Inmates (available at cor. state. pa. us) provides valuable information to people who are entering the prison environment for the first time (Hardesty & Sturges, 2005).This handbook is not a blanket policy for all correctional institutions, so it is best to consult individual facilities before attempting to visit. Vis its correctional facilities have specific protocols that visitors must follow. To visit or call an inmate, sexual assault advocates and counselors must be on that inmates authorize visitors and phone lists. If an inmate requests services by letter, advocates and counselors should occupy to be plazad on these said lists (and notified when this has happened).Remember to request specific information about visiting hours and days, when the inmate is available for contact by telephone, and what kind of assistance he or she would like. For example, does this person need or want information and pamphlets? Does this person want counseling or referrals? When advocates and counselors have been approved to call or visit, they can establish a meeting time. Dress Each prison has a specific dress code that prohibits certain items of clothing. mulct shirts, shorts, halter-tops, and a variety of other articles are deemed inappropriate or veto by facilities.Use judgment when determining wardrob e, but consider dressing somewhat conservatively. As visitors pass through a metal detector before entering the prison, it is best to avoid wearing a lot of metal, such as belt out buckles 8 and buttons on a coat. This may delay access to the facility. Also, many facilities are quite large and a lot of walking is often required, so you may wish to wear comfortable shoes that are easy to remove if they need to be inspected. Belongings There are several items that are considered contraband in Pennsylvania prisons, even though some may seem harmless.To avoid complications and delays, take as little into the prison as possible. Weapons are prohibited in the prison and on the property, including the parking lots. Weapons may be defined as anything from the obvious such as guns, pocketknives, and cans of mace, to items that seem less threatening, such as nail files, clippers, scissors, and notebooks with metal spiral binding. Some commonly banned items include wallets, handbags, cell pho nes, electronic devices, weapons (or anything that can be used as a weapon), food, and medications.For a full list of banned items, contact the prison directly. Your vehicle may be subject to searches as well. A drivers license is required. If available, bring agency or organization identification. Safety Considerations Some advocates may question their safety when working in the prison environment. While it is critical that advocates trust their gut instincts, especially if they sense danger, it is also important to challenge stereotypes that all inmates are violent or bad people. There are many nonviolent offenders currently behind bars.Nonviolent offenders are more likely to become the victims of sexual crimes inside of prison walls than those who have been convicted for more serious crimes (Mariner, 2001). Self-awareness Before entering a prison it is a good idea to mentally prepare. During the time it takes to travel to the prison, or sometime before, advocates and counselors may want to think about the steps they need to take magical spell at the prison-everything from entering and walking through the prison, how they might feel as they pass inmates, finding the meeting room, meeting with clients, and exiting the prison.It is strongly suggested that advocates and counselors request to tour the prison, including where they will be meeting with clients, prior to their first session with victims. 9 COLLABORATING WITH CORRECTIONAL STAFF Advocates and counselors who work with victims of prison rape will inevitably have contact with staff at correctional facilities. At a minimum, advocates will rely on the staff for safety and assistance while providing services within the prison environment. At the other end of the spectrum, advocates may find it helpful to collaborate with prison staff in the development and provision of services to victims of prison rape.Whatever microscope stage of collaboration, it is important to be aware of the distinct roles advocat es and corrections personnel fulfill and to discuss those differences with each other from the beginning. It is very important to establish strong working relationships with corrections staff. They are a valuable resource in the advocates network and are familiar with the ins and outs of working within a prison system. In cases of uncertainty, staff is often a knowledge source. They may have advice and tips for those who come in from other agencies to work with the prison population.Counselors, psychological staff, and chaplains are especially helpful because they are in tune with the emotional and supportive needs of the inmates and can provide insight into how victims of sexual assault, past or present, may benefit from different types of programs and services. They may also have ideas about what works and what does not work in a correctional setting. Overall, establishing cooperation and mutual respect with corrections personnel from the beginning of the collaboration will great ly enhance advocates work with victims.It is very important to establish strong working relationships with corrections staff. They are a valuable resource in the advocates network and are familiar with the ins and outs of working within a prison system. 10 Training as a First Step towards coaction Collaboration may not be possible without adequate training of both corrections staff and rape crisis advocates on the problem of prison rape the preposterous needs of its victims and the differing cultures, goals, and missions of corrections and the anti-sexual violence movement.Corrections staff and administrators may not be aware of the seriousness of rape in correctional settings. They may lack the skills and knowledge to respond to a sexual assault emergency. Furthermore, they may be ill equipped to address non-emergency situations such as rape, sexual abuse, or incest that may have occurred prior to an inmates incarceration. Advocates and counselors may also have room to grow and s kills to develop in meeting the needs of victims of prison rape. When opportunities arise, engage in cross-training with prison staff.These exchanges may help rape crisis advocates teach prison staff about sexual violence, the needs of victims, and the goals and mission of rape crisis services. In turn, cross-training will also help rape crisis advocates integrate their services within the prison environment in an effective and informed way. soul the Differing Roles of Prison Staff and Rape Crisis Advocates The correctional facilitys staff is mainly concerned with the security of the facility. They are interested in maintaining order and keeping everyone safe.Advocates primary concern is to meet the needs of victims of prison rape and harbor their right to confidentiality. Although the correctional personnel may know the role of the advocate, they must still uphold the rules of the facility to keep order. For example, if advocates are running a sort and are using supplies, such as scissors or spiral bound notebooks, they may have a problem. Despite the importance to the work, those items may be prohibited and therefore cannot be brought into the facility. It is not uncommon to feel frustrated in having to alter or completely change entire plans when working with inmates. 1 Understanding Confidentiality in the Prison Environment Confidentiality and client-counselor privilege may create a challenge in collaborating with corrections staff. By statute, the communications between sexual assault advocates/counselors and clients are privileged, or confidential. However, prison personnel may not be able to live by this ethic if the threat of danger to staff or inmates exists. For example, corrections officers must share most of the information they receive in order to maintain safety in the institution both for themselves and inmates.Confidentiality is a radix of the anti-sexual violence movement. It is important that advocates collaborate with corrections staff while maintaining client confidentiality. For technical assistance on this matter, contact PCAR at 1-800-692-7445 or visit pcar. org. determination Common Ground It is important to point out the differences between correctional staff goals and rape crisis advocate goals. Acknowledging differences is important, but alone it is not an effective way to foster the growth of a professional relationship. It is equally important to identify similarities and common goals.Both corrections personnel and rape crisis advocates try to protect inmates from harm, by their own hand or others. Rape crisis advocates protect mental health and wellness and corrections employees protect physical status and safety of inmates. This common ground leaves room for collaboration and cooperation. With psychological staff, parole officers, and the prison chaplain, a common goal is rehabilitation. All involved are focused on improving the inmates situation and condition-whether through education, counseling, sk ill development, or other interventions-so he or she can be a productive and functional member of society upon release.With help, positive changes can occur and the client will become empowered. Empowerment is a goal that both corrections staff and rape crisis seek to realize, just by different means. 12 Developing Positive Working Relationships Rape crisis advocates and prison personnel may not always see eye to eye, but the following tips may help develop positive working relationships 1. Always show respect for each other. If a person feels respected, he or she will usually reciprocate that respect. 2. bear witness tolerance, understanding, and empathy at all times.Try to see the situation from another perspective. 3. Keep communication lines open. Talk about potential problems before they arise. Be a focused listener, ask questions, and try to inform the staff about the role and purpose of advocacy. A person who understands what is happening is usually less resistant and uncoop erative. 4. Look for ways to associate with corrections staff before you enter the prison. Serve on task forces and boards together. 5. Attend trainings on serving victims of prison rape and ways to collaborate with prison personnel. Engage in cross-trainings with corrections staff. . Remember the distinct roles of corrections staff and rape crisis advocates. Acknowledge when these differing roles are at play and find ways to via media or respectfully agree to disagree. 7. Seek common ground whenever possible in collaborations. Keep the big picture in mind the needs of victims of prison rape and the ways that corrections staff and rape crisis advocates are united. A strong working relationship with prison personnel will not only help enhance advocates experiences and comfort levels inside the prison walls it will also positively impact victims.By maintaining positive relationships, advocates will have greater access to victims and prison staff may be more likely to appropriately r espond to victims. A strong working relationship with prison personnel will not only help enhance advocates experiences and comfort levels inside the prison walls it will also positively impact victims. 13 INMATE SUPPORT GROUPS Like community-based support meetings, facilitating support themes inside of a prison may be challenging, especially if the group is lacking in participation, both in terms of numbers and members willingness to share.Advocates might face challenges erratic to the prison population when planning and facilitating support groups. For example, in prison populations, the importance of confidentiality may be even more salient, given the high risk that may exist for victims who are unfortunately trapped under the same roof as their offenders. Victims of prison rape may be even more reluctant to come to a group with sexual assault or victim in the name, as being set with such a group may make victims seem even more vulnerable to existing and potential perpetrator s within the prison.Trust may be even more difficult to establish among group members, given the dangers of the environment and the need to look out for oneself. Below are some strategies that may help attract and retain victims of prison rape as well as enhance their experiences with the group. Pick an innocuous name. It may be difficult to attract members to a group with the words rape, sexual assault, or victims in the title. Unfortunately, social stigma surrounding rape and victimization is still potent enough to prevent victims from attending such a group.Being identified as a victim in the prison environment could be dangerous. Choose names that relate to health and wellness, safety, or prevention as debate to ones that boldly announce they pertain to sexual assault. This may help recruit group members while still leaving room to address the purpose of the group to address rape and sexual assault issues. Collaborate with prison staff to ensure inmates access, protection, and privacy. Prison staff members can be pivotal in getting a support group off the ground.They can make the groups accessible to inmates by enabling inmates to attend such groups. Furthermore, prison staff members can protect group members safety and privacy among the larger prison population by keeping their participation in such groups confidential. 14 Combine your resources with allies. When developing a new group, it can be helpful to build upon existing relationships and partnerships with allied professionals. Combining resources with others may help advocates reach a wider audience in a more holistic way, focusing on more than one topic or issue.Collaboration allows allied professionals to address the complex relationships between sexual violence and other social struggles, such as substance abuse, domestic violence, poverty, and other issues. Often, substance abuse and dependency is a form of self-medication or a way to cope with past sexual abuse. Even if the sessions do not d irectly deal with sexual assault issues, the topics still have potential to bring rape issues into the speckle if they are in a related area. Collaborating with allied professionals may help advocates get their programs into prisons.Partnering with other professionals also enables advocates to address multiple issues in the group setting, thereby meeting the needs of individual victims holistically. Screen participants. Advocates should screen each potential group member before he or she enters the group. Screening helps to ensure group membership includes voluntary victims who are ready to address their experiences in a group setting. The following questions may help advocates screen potential group members 1. What experiences bring you to the group? 2.What do you hope to gain from this group? 3. What do you hope to offer other group members? 4. Would you have any concerns/difficulties in engaging in discussions about sexual violence victimization? 5. Are you prepared to protect c onfidentiality and the privacy of other group members? Determine if the group will be closed in(p) or open. A closed group is one in which new members are not allowed to join from week to week, or after the group has been formally established. An open group is one in which members are allowed to join and drop off from week to week.There are benefits and drawbacks associated with each group composition. A closed group may help establish and maintain a stronger sense of trust and group cohesion among members. In a closed group, the curriculum or content of each session can build upon the previous week in a linear way. An open group may reach more victims, 15 as it is available to new members from week to week. Whichever format, advocates should learn about group dynamics and be prepared to address the challenges and build upon strengths of any group.Obtain ongoing training in group facilitation and dynamics. Even the most seasoned advocates can benefit from ongoing group work trainin g. Knowledge is continuously evolving, as are the needs of victims. Advocates new to the field of prison rape may benefit from trainings specific to the inmate population. Involve group in establishing ground rules and goals of group. Retaining membership in groups can be difficult, but there are a few things that can be done to increase retention. Involve group members in establishing the ground rules.This generates individual members investment in the group and its progress. Such ground rules should cover basics such as punctuality, confidentiality, communication during group (one person speaks at a time), the need for breaks or individual support, showing respect for others, and expectations for behavior. Remember, the group can continue to add ground rules to the list as the group unfolds and as the need arises. organise and rules can help create a safe and inviting atmosphere. Develop and safeguard trust. Allow appropriate time for group members to get to know each other.Inmat es may be distrusting of other inmates and especially of staff and other outside authority figures. Give them the opportunity to warm up before starting intensive work. Keep groups relatively small so that members can build a sense of rapport with facilitator(s) and other participants. Empower group members as active leaders. Listen to group members. Seek their input. People are more likely to keep attending a group if they are involved in decision making. Plan a topic or discussion, but be flexible and go with the flow.Allow group members to lead the discussion rather than pushing a preconceived agenda. Gently guide the group back onto topic if necessary. 16 Lighten up Balance challenging individual and group processes with fun activities when appropriate and possible. There are pickle of engaging activities that foster personal growth and strengthen bonds between members. Interspersing lighter content between heavier sessions can help the groups cohesion and collective mental hea lth. If the group is not enjoyable from time to time, advocates may lose group members.These ideas are applicable to working with any group. While it is important to identify and meet the unique needs of the prison population, victims of prison rape deserve and can benefit from many of the same approaches and efforts advocates use with non-incarcerated victims. Victims of prison rape may be even more reluctant to come to a group with sexual assault or victim in the name, as being identified with such a group may make victims seem even more vulnerable to existing and potential perpetrators within the prison. 17 STATE-LEVEL RESPONSES IN PENNSYLVANIASince January 2005, the Pennsylvania Coalition Against Rape (PCAR) has been working with the Pennsylvania Department of Corrections, the Pennsylvania Office of the Victim Advocate, and law enforcement officers to develop prison rape prevention curricula for inmates and corrections staff. It is their goal to increase awareness about sexual c rimes that occur during terms of imprisonment, to encourage reporting of and responses to sexual assault and rape, and to support prison personnel and rape crisis advocates in meeting the needs of victims.This state-level collaboration has resulted in two sexual assault training curricula-one for inmates and one for prison staff. The inmate curriculum is now provided in all state facilities to inmates at orientation and at annual reviews with counselors. All state corrections staff members now complete a sexual assault training program-which includes an overview of sexual assault, prevention, reporting policies and protocol, the needs of victims, and services in Pennsylvania-by computer as part of their job requirements.The hope is that these two curricula will improve responses and services to victims of prison rape as well as prevent sexual violence from occurring within the prison environment. Additionally, statewide training and technical assistance will be available to both cor rections staff and rape crisis advocates as a means to supporting their work with victims of prison rape at the local level. For more information, contact PCAR at 1800-692-7445 or visit pcar. org for more information. 18 CONCLUSION The Prison Rape Elimination Act marks an important shift in our society.Its passage helps place the needs of victims of prison rape on the radar of social service agencies and correctional institutions throughout the country. Victims of prison rape have gone largely disregarded and worse, ignored for too long. Working with any new group or population can present challenges. Advocacy within the prison setting may pose unique barriers and rewards. While it is important to identify and address potential limitations and concerns, it is equally important to acknowledge and build upon strengths and resources in meeting the needs of victims of rison rape. Collaboration-with corrections staff, community allies, and others-is integral to this work and reaching vi ctims. Victims of prison rape depend on rape crisis centers for support. It is likely that they will not receive help from any other source. RESOURCES ON PRISON RAPE Human Rights Watch (212) 290-4700 hrw. org National Sexual Assault Coalition Resource Sharing Project Newsletter on the Prison Rape Elimination Act, Issue 18, Spring 2006 (319) 339-0899 http//www. resourcesharingproject. org/newsletters. tml National Sexual Violence Resource Center 877-739-3895 nsvrc. org Pennsylvania Coalition Against Rape 1-800-692-7445 pcar. org Pennsylvania Department of Corrections (717) 975-4859 cor. state. pa. us Pennsylvania Office of the Victim Advocate 800. 563. 6399 http//www. pbpp. state. pa. us/ova/site/default. asp The Pennsylvania Prison Society 800-227-2307 prisonsociety. org Stop Prisoner Rape (213) 384-1400 spr. org 19 REFERENCES Hardesty, K. , & Sturges, J. (2005). A handbook for the families and friends of Pennsylvania department of corrections prison inmates.Retrieved February 21, 2 006 from www. cor. state. pa. us/portal/lib/bis/Handbook_for_Families_and_Friends. pdf Mariner, J. (2001). No escape Male rape in U. S. prisons. Retrieved butt on 1, 2006 from www. spr. org Stop Prisoner Rape. (200). The basics on rape behind bars. Retrieved February 22, 2006 from www. spr. org. US Department of Justice. (1999). Subgrantees training guide Victims of Crime Act assistance grant program (NCJ 175717). Washington, DC US Department of Justice. 20 This guide was funded in part by a National Institute of Corrections grant.

Tenets of Neoclassical Economy

The objective of this academic essay is to discuss the main tenets of neoclassic economic liberalism, explain whether less true countries should entirely depend on developed countries not and give the reasons. According to Schumpeter (1954), the classical school of economics was developed in the 1750 and lasted as the mainstream of economic thought until the late 1800.Adam smiths Wealth of Nation book published in 1776 heap be utilize as the formal beginning of classical economics precisely it actu each(prenominal)y evolved over a period of time and was influenced by Mercantilist doctrines, Physiocracy, the enlightenment, classical liberalism and the early stages of the industrial revolution. Adam metalworker is recognized as the originator of classical economic. John Stuart Mill a British philosopher 1806-1873 is often regarded as the synthesizer of the school.While Adam Smith would be regarded as the originator and leader of the school, David Ricardo 1772-1823 should be cred ited with establishing the form and methods of school. Neoclassical economic liberalism is based on principles of namely reconcile competition, a automatic securities industry economy, and low or no taxes on income and property, while sharing with separatewise forms of liberalism a belief in progress, the essential goodness of the homosexual race, and the ego-reliance of the individual and standing for the protection of political and civil liberties. givingism has long history rooted in the theories of liberal political thought. It focuses mainly on the individuals rights. It attaches a contend of value to personal freedom be it political or economical. It strives to limit the states influence in the economic and affable livelihood of society. Liberal theorists believe that economic life should not be interfered by constitutional and legal rights to run in all the national or public services. Economic life should be let flourish on its own without interference by the sta te.Therefore, the cornerstone or the most essential thought of liberalism are free throw and free competition (Schumpeter 1954). Neo-classicists see the market for organising economic activities and individuals and companies are rewarded for their efficiency. The market is seen to be at the centre for economic growth and not the state. In other words, Neoclassical seek to understand economic development in terms of the market behaviour of individual actors and therefore can be described as essentially individualistic (Downs 1957).Economics is a science that studies human behaviour as a relationship between ends and scarce means that have alternatives uses. Neoclassical economics pursues this study by means of supply and demand types that determine prices based on the subjective preference for determining prices in order to escape from the so called objective value theory of classical economics, according to which the value of goods could be established by reference to some basic commodity or the force input required to produce a good.Neo-classicists hoped that by throwing a elbow room objective values, economics could be placed on a more scientific undercoat as an essentially descriptive and predictive theory of human behaviour (Thirlwall, 2006). Neoclassical economics can be understood in terms of both(prenominal) its subject matter and its method. The subject matter of economics deals with variables such as incomes and prices, and aggregates like gross national product, employment levels and inflation rate.The methods offer a management to think about large number fundamental interactions within markets, although in principle the range of social institutions can be extended to include politics. The characteristic take in or main tenets of the classical method are instrumental cause, methodological individualism, economic self interest, equilibrium analysis and the use of mathematical techniques (Riker, 1982). With instrumental rationality entails that agents are supposed rational in a broad sense that their behaviour can explained in term of their preferences.Preferences are assumed to be rigid by the individuals desires and beliefs and rise up ordered with regard to outcomes. For many purposes, preferences can remain specified only up to certain abstract structural features, such as consistency, completeness and complexity. The latter requirement forms the basis of relative price analytics focused on behavioural effects of changes in the relative prices of different objects of value. More specifically, rational individuals are assumed to respond to any increase in the price of a good by consuming less of it.This simple relative price propose turns to be surprisingly powerful in predicting behaviour in economic setting and includes specifically the basis of institutional analysis Institutions yield different social outcomes because they alter the incentives that agents face (Buchanan, 1975). In principle, individuals pref erence could have any content whatsoever agents could be benevolent or could be driven by conclave interests or a desire to comply with group norms. But in practice , there is a strong tendency to ascribe predominantly self interested motives o individuals and to rely more on institutional mechanism that bend interests to the service of duty than on individuals inherent sense of dutifulness. Accordingly, the first inquire economists are likely to ask of institutions is what economic incentives they give rise to. Equally, when individuals agents interact, neo-classicists generally assumes that each agent maximizes his or her own well existence, considered apart from the well being of the other agents with whom he or she interacts.According to Downs (1957) in the resultant interplay among rival interests, classical economists tend to conceptualize stable social outcomes as form of equilibria, in which the fortissimo of the various contenders are in balance. Furthermore, analysis proceed by examining changes in external circumstances that would alter the strength of different forces and thereby induce all to change their behaviour in particular directions.The external circumstances in question include policy change by government and changes in broader institutional arrangements though there is an issue as to how far government action should be regarded as external to the social system. Buchanan (1975) argues that the distinct feature of the neoclassical lift to economics can be usefully illustrated with reference to classical economics, in particular to Adams Smiths metaphor of the invisible hand.Smiths metaphor say the idea that, under certain conditions, the behaviour of agents who act in their own interests can also ultimately promote the public interest. Smith claimed specifically that the freely operating market under the system of natural liberty would constitute such an invisible hand process. Although agents are assumed to be neither specially ben evolent nor cooperate by nature, the exchange processes that the free market were seen to mobilize vast benefits from large scale human cooperation that are individually not attainable.The neoclassical version of the claim is embodied in the so called fundamental theorems of welfare economics, which asserts that all short competitive equilibria are Pareto optimal, and all Pareto-optimal points are equilibria of a perfectly competitive market under some initial distinction of goods. Pareto optimally is defined as the situation in which all possible mutually good moves have been made. Interestingly, the neoclassical version of this result follows David Ricardos formulation in which gains from exchange arise from exploiting natural differences among agents according to principle of ompetitive advantage. In Adam Smiths version by contrast, the gains from exchange arise not merely from natural difference but from gains from specialisation (Buchanan 1975). There is however, a more prob atory limitation to fundamental theorem of welfare economics. The theorems are restricted in their scope to private goods that are excludable. Markets cannot guarantee the optimal provision of public goods and collective usage goods. Under plausible conditions, non excludable goods such as defence or law and order and non patentable discoveries whitethorn not be provided at all.Even accepting the limited prescriptive reach of paretian concepts, therefore, markets cannot reliably deliver much that is required for their successful operation, such as a secure system of property rights and many goods that are important for human flourishing, such as public health measures or plausible theories about the working of the economy (Thirlwall, 2006). Furthermore, Paretooptimal outcomes are not necessarily just. Pareto-optimality is tenacious with slavery if slaves cannot purchase their own freedom.It is also consistent with very large disparities in income levels. Although the fundamental t heorem of welfare economics state that any Pareto-optimal outcome can be realized by a suitable initial redistribution of goods, perfectly competitive markets remain themselves neutral with regard to distributive issues. In other words, the neoclassical defence of perfectly competitive markets can offer only a partial foundation for a comprehensive theory of cooperation, because the normative basis of rating that the neoclassical approach offers is too thin.Political philosophers such as Robert Nozick (1974) and David Gauthier (1986), for example, have taken this lack of normative justification as a starting point to embed markets into broader theories of social and economic cooperation that balance efficiency considerations with concerns for justice. Nevertheless, the neoclassical analysis of markets carries important normative implications. First, the analysis demonstrates that the benefits available from human cooperation are considerable.Neoclassical economics depicts social i nteraction as potentially positive sum. Beyond enjoyed by some individuals need not imply a loss to other and can lead to superfluous gains. Second, in mobilizing the mutual benefits available, there is a significant task of coordination among individual participation, a task that markets perform well for private excludable goods. Third, in part, markets work well in this coordination role, because they induce predominantly self-interested persons to serve others interests.It might be said that markets economize on benevolence, which tends to be a scarce good for many human interactions. Finally, the neoclassical account help to identify cases of market failure cases in which markets cannot guarantee optimal outcome (Emrah, 2008). Less developed countries cannot depend entirely on the notion of neoclassical economic liberalism or markets mechanism to the extent developed countries. This is because most markets in developing countries are characterised with widespread imperfection. One example is lack of nurture and existence of uncertainty that most individual producers face. Most producers in developing countries are generally unsure about the size of local markets, the existence of other producers and the availability of inputs both domestic and imported. Therefore in such a situation profit-utility maximising may be based on incorrect nurture and in the end lead to inefficient allocation of resources. (Todaro and Smith, 2009) Under such circumstance, the government may perhaps intervene to provide information by direct producers and consumers.Therefore it can be analysed that, although free market economies have been successful in developed economies, it cannot be so in developing countries and the only recourse is the model of the mixed economy or social market economy. According to Thirlwall (1989), the true benefits of free market outputs may not be reflected in the prices because of the presence of developed externalities. A number of goods may hav e high social value that is not reflected in their market prices.Because of market distortion or imperfections, the prices may not reflect marginal cost and many social goods and services such as health and education may not be produced at all or offered at a low price even free because markets are incomplete and private sectors have no incentives to produce them. In appurtenance there is no guarantee that market mechanism will distribute resources equitably. Therefore, the government usually has the responsibility to provide them. Todaro and Smith (2009) further argue that although markets may ensure efficient allocation of resources, it can also lead to high levels of income inequalities.Over dependence on market may not improve the distribution of income but it worsen it. Due to these kinds of market failures, different developmental experts and economist have argued in the past that there must be government intervention in the development process and adopt various forms of plan ning models to allocate resources. In some countries resource allocation or planning is managed by bureaucrats and not by consumers. The government plan how resources are allocated across different sectors of the economy (Thirlwall, 1989). In conclusion, the welfare role of the state is retained in a social market economy which cares for the poor.In cases where the poor countries are striving towards a free market economy, there should be certain segments controlled by the state but with prevalence of free enterprise such that efficiency is restored and the country moves towards economic prosperity. Free market economy under centralized political control is the most effective way for distributing resources. BIBLIOGRAPHY Aydinonat, N. Emrah. (2008) The Invisible Hand in Economics How Economists Explain Unintended Social Consequences Routledge, New York. Buchanan, J. M. (1975). TheLlimits Of Liberty University of Chicago Press, Chicago Downs, A. 1957). An Economic Theory of Democracy. Harper, New York Gauthier, D. P. (1986), morals by Agreement Clarendon Press, Oxford, UK. Nozick, R. (1974), Anarchy, State, And Utopia Blackwell,Oxford, UK. Riker, W. H. (1982), Liberalism against populism A confrontation between the theory of democracy and the theory of social choice Freeman, San Francisco. Schumpeter, Joseph A. (1954), History of Economic Analysis Oxford University Press, New York. Thirlwall, P. A (2006), 8th ed Growth And Development Macmillan, London. Todaro, M and S. Smith (2009) Economic Development Dorling, New Delhi.